Adjustable-speed Drives
What are the options?
How to make the best choice
What's on the horizon?
Adjustable-speed drives (ASDs) allow induction-motor-driven loads, such as fans and pumps, to operate in speed ranges as wide as 10% to 300% of fixed speed. (They are also called variable-frequency drives, variable-speed drives, variable-frequency inverters and frequency converters.) By controlling motor speed so that it finely corresponds to varying load requirements, ASD installations can increase energy efficiency (in some cases, energy savings can exceed 50%), improve power factor and process precision, and afford other performance benefits, such as soft starting and overspeed capability. They can also eliminate the need for expensive and energy-wasting throttling mechanisms, such as control valves and outlet dampers.
Loads ideal for ASD application: The large majority of ASDs are installed on loads where torque increases with speed, including centrifugal pumps, fans, blowers, and most kinds of compressors.
Loads requiring careful ASD application: Constant-torque loads require the same torque regardless of speed. Examples are reciprocating compressors, positive-displacement pumps, conveyers, centre winders and drilling/milling machines. Although constant-torque loads are suitable for ASDs, operation of these loads at low rpm will be limited and the ASD must be carefully sized to ensure adequate starting torque.
Loads difficult for ASD application: Loads in which torque decreases with speed usually involve very high inertia loads, such as vehicular (for example, railway traction) drives or flywheel-loaded applications—it takes less torque to keep these loads turning than to accelerate them. Loads of this type are difficult, but not impossible, for ASD application. Custom-engineered solutions are often required to handle the extra heat generated in starting and stopping such loads.
What are the options?
There are several types of ASD, each with its own benefits and drawbacks. Many hybrid forms combine characteristics of two or more of the basic ASD types listed below:
- Current source inverter
- Voltage source inverter
- Load-commutated inverter
- Pulse-width modulated inverter
- Cycloconverter
- Vector control
Historically, the six-step voltage source drive has been the industry workhorse. However, mass production and pricing pressure have enabled the pulse-width modulated drive to become increasingly dominant, particularly for ASDs under 200 hp.
All ASDs have the same basic structure, which includes a rectifier, filter and inverter. The rectifier converts three-phase AC line power to DC power. The components used in the rectifier are typically thyristors or diodes. The filter sits between the rectifier and inverter, and provides harmonic and power ripple filter (using inductors or chokes) as well as power storage (using capacitors). These components work to smooth and regulate, respectively, the current and voltage supplied to the motor. The inverter portion typically consists of thyristors or transistors that are carefully controlled to sequence the proper voltage and current to the phase windings of the motor, depending on the speed and load required.
Present-day economics favour pulse-width modulated drives for applications under 200 hp and, in most cases, these drives will provide excellent service. In both retrofit and new applications, the user should consider heating and cabling distance to make sure the supplier will guarantee long-term performance. Some applications may also use the older but very reliable six-step voltage-source inverter technology. Many thousands of these drives are in service, and many companies still design and manufacture them for applications under 200 hp.
Larger systems may use current source, load-commutated or cycloconverter type drives. Specifying and implementing larger systems usually will involve more detailed design, close technical support, and, in some cases, custom engineering.
| Other Types of Motor Speed Controls |
ASDs offer the highest improvement in efficiency, precise speed control and many other benefits, but other types of controls are available: Other electrical methods. Motor and interface technologies to electrically control motor speed. Hydraulic and mechanical methods. Non-electric methods to control speed or output. Electronic devices. Soft-start devices, power factor controllers and application-specific electronics for saving energy. Load-management controls. Methods of improving the control of motor and load systems, usually through a combination of software and sensors. |
How to make the best choice
What motor/load systems would benefit from adjustable-speed operation? Consider the following factors when evaluating potential ASD applications:
Output profile of the application. In general, all loads with throttled output should be evaluated for ASD retrofit. To qualify as an economical ASD application, the output from a motor/load system must have significant operation at less than rated output, thus an output profile is a necessary tool for evaluation.
The output profile documents the output required from the system, rather than motor loading. It involves charting the output from the motor/load system (downstream of any throttling valves) versus rated full-load output. If a 100-gallon-per-minute (gpm) pump is throttled to 30 gpm, this represents a 30% system loading. The motor in this case may actually be operating at about 70% of its full load, with the extra energy dissipated across the throttling valve. Adding an ASD so that the pump puts out exactly 30 gpm with no throttling will drop the motor's load from 70% to about 4%, providing a dramatic savings in energy for exactly the same output.
The average loading at which adding an ASD becomes economical will depend, as with other energy efficiency investment decisions, on the local cost of electricity, on how many hours the motor and driven equipment operate, and at what output. Most loads throttled continuously at 70% or less of rated output are good candidates for adjustable speed. Motor and load systems that deliver rated flow less than 40% of the time are also good variable-speed prospects, particularly if their average throughput over time is below 60%.
Duty cycle of the motor. In general, the longer a motor operates, the more attractive it becomes as an ASD retrofit candidate. A motor/load system operating for 6,000 hours per year with throttled output will be three times more attractive for ASD retrofit than the same motor operating 2,000 hours per year.
To determine the duty cycle, the user must record how many hours the motor operates for a set time and then estimate the yearly operating hours. Some motors have "run meters" that will record the total number of hours. However, it is also important to note how the hours relate to the motor's load. For example, in a pumping application, 130 hours of operation at 70% load wastes about the same amount of energy as only 100 hours throttled at 40% output. In general, the more throttled the output—and the longer the operation at throttled output—the more attractive the economics of an ASD retrofit.
Motor choice. For an increasing number of applications, alternative variable-speed technologies, such as permanent-magnet or switched reluctance motors, may offer benefits over an induction motor/ASD system. This is especially true for applications that require very high speeds or a large range of speeds, high torque at low speed or four-quadrant (motor, brake and generator) performance.
Poorly selected or applied ASDs can increase, rather than decrease, energy bills. To avoid this problem, consider the following when specifying an ASD:
Which motor to use. Standard or energy efficient? Energy-efficient motors have emerged as the preferred motor for ASD applications. In fact, most inverter-duty motors (designed especially for service with an ASD) sold today are based on the best energy-efficient motor designs. In addition to having better efficiency at all speeds and loads, and improved design and construction, energy-efficient motors offer a number of advantages for ASD service, including better thermal management, wider speed ranges and better insulation systems.
No savings at full load. ASDs provide dramatic energy savings by optimizing the motor/load system—-not by improving the actual efficiency of the motor in isolation, as an energy-efficient motor retrofit would (Figure 1). In fact, an induction motor/ASD system is about 4% to 6% less efficient at full load than an induction motor alone. A process that requires continuous full-load output from a motor/load system will require more energy with an ASD, not less. However, it takes relatively little operation at reduced load to save more energy than is lost at full load. Average loading as high as 90% can justify ASD retrofit for high-duty, high utility rate applications. In addition, the improved power factor provided by an ASD (especially pulse-width modulation [PWM] ASDs) can produce additional savings due to reduced I2R losses in the cables supplying power to the drive and motor.
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Figure 1: ASD, motor and system efficiency vs. load Source: E Source: Manufacturers' data |
Harmonics and power factor. Although they can improve displacement power factor (DPF), modern ASDs also have an electrical disadvantage—they can create harmonics, which reduce real power factor (Table 1). (Real power factor includes harmonics and DPF.) For instance, while an ASD can improve DPF to close to 1.0, the harmonics generated by the ASD can cause the real power factor to decline to between 0.75 and 0.80. These harmonic currents—most often the fifth and seventh harmonics—tend to exacerbate resistance losses and can even negate the transformer capacity benefits of improved DPF.
| Table 1: Energy savings from improved power factor | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| No ASD | With ASD | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Motor size (hp) | 100 | 100 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Motor load | 75% | 75% | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Motor duty | 100% | 100% | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| System displacement power factor | 0.854 | 1.0 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Resistive losses (kWh per year) | 639 | 466 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Cost of losses ($ per year at 6¢ per kWh) | $38 | $28 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Savings per year | — | $10 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Note: This analysis assumes 100 hp motors fed by 100 feet of #00 conductors with a resistance of 0.00811 ohms per foot. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Source: E Source | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
To minimize harmonics problems, an increasing number of ASD manufacturers are packaging harmonics-mitigating equipment, such as line reactors or isolation transformers, with drives. These features can allow users to enjoy the full benefits of power factor improvement. In addition, this added equipment can significantly reduce the impact of ASD-generated harmonics on other electronic equipment—a benefit that should be especially attractive to value-conscious commercial and industrial users.
Problems at low speeds and light loads. Most induction motors currently in use can operate with modern ASDs through moderate speed ranges (around 30% to 100% speed). Sustained operation at low speeds, and in particular high load at low speeds, may require a special or larger drive and special measures to cool the motor. Induction motors will operate hotter with an ASD because of harmonics and other impurities in the electric power they provide to the motor and also as a result of the slower rotating speed of the motor's integral cooling fans. This is usually not a problem at continuous speeds above about 40% or for brief periods of slow-speed operation. Prolonged operation at or below about 30% speed, especially when driving significant loads, can cause rapid and potentially damaging heat in motors not designed to accommodate this service. Selecting a drive that allows the user to set a minimum operating speed can deal with this problem. Additional cooling for the motor, such as external fans, may also be appropriate.
ASDs decrease starting torque. In ASD/motor systems, starting torque is typically determined not by the motor but by the drive—particularly how much electrical current it can deliver. For conventional ASD applications, the ASD/motor system will have a peak starting torque of about 130% of rated full-load torque—significantly less than what the motor could develop by itself. This level of starting torque is acceptable for most variable-speed loads, but some loads (especially constant-torque loads, such as conveyers, escalators, augers or reciprocating compressors) may require greater starting torque. To improve starting torque for these applications:
- Specify an ASD with a higher horsepower rating. Purchasing an ASD with a horsepower rating higher than that of the motor (for example, using a 100 hp drive with a 75 hp motor) enables higher starting torque. This is because starting torque in an ASD/motor system is limited by the current-handling capabilities of the drive's power electronic components. The larger drive costs more, however, and care must be taken to specify protection levels that prevent the larger ASD from supplying too much current to the motor.
- Use programmable ASD starting features. High-quality ASDs have programmable features that can improve starting capability for ASD/motor systems. For instance, programming a gentle acceleration ramp causes the drive to slowly start a high-inertia load. Dwell, another configurable feature, causes the ASD to initially energize the motor, then wait a second or two to allow the motor's magnetic fields to reach full strength before accelerating to higher speeds. Finally, configuring voltage boost so that the ASD provides higher-than-normal voltage to the motor at low speeds facilitates a more vigorous response.
Motor damage from ASDs located too far from motor. Pulse-width modulated (PWM) drives can cause significant damage to motors if the length of cable between the ASD and the motor exceeds 50 to 100 feet. (The number seems to differ by manufacturer.) Older motors with long cable runs may have shortened lives using PWM ASDs. Carefully watch motor lead lengths, consider buying an inverter-duty motor, or select an ASD system that will specifically guard against this hazard with inductive filters or other methods.
Mechanical resonance frequencies. As with any variable-speed system, it is important to determine any mechanical resonance frequencies and to program the ASD to avoid steady operation at those speeds. These resonance frequencies, common in large fans, gears and belt-driven systems, can cause significant damage through vibration. Users can identify these frequencies by monitoring noise and vibration while instructing the ASD to gradually increase speed from low to high. When used as part of regular system maintenance, this technique can reveal weaknesses in bearings, fan or impeller unbalances, bent shafts and other problems that may escape notice at constant speed.
Motor-ASD compatibility. To ensure that the ASD and motor are compatible, both motor and drive can be purchased from the same company, or the ASD may be designed and tested by the manufacturer for compatibility with another company's line of motors. In either case, the user must carefully specify load, duty, and other critical system requirements.
What's on the horizon?
Look for continuing decreases in first cost for ASD units and ever-improving reliability. Manufacturers are working on integrating ASD controls into other control systems, such as heating, cooling and ventilation systems.
Copyright © 2008 E Source Companies LLC
Last Modified: May 9, 2009
